The Open University offers a program of study leading to a Master's degree in Biological Thought. This unique program combines ideas and approaches from the field of biology with philosophical and historical concepts. It examines the nature, structure and theories of Biology, and the implications of life sciences on other areas of knowledge, on the environment, on society and on man.

  To the website (Hebrew)

Description of the Program

Background and Rationale
Undergraduate biology students acquire exquisitely detailed knowledge of the various branches of the life-sciences. Interactions between these sciences and philosophical or social issues are not perceived here in Israeli universities as part of the curriculum. Hence, it is hardly surprising that Israeli biology graduates are quite naive in their thinking about the implications of the life sciences for society and about the influence of other fields of knowledge on biology itself. Thus, it is doubtful whether a typical biology graduate can properly define the mind-body problem, express a reasoned view concerning creationism, present arguments for or against animal experimentation, hold ground in a debate on sociobiology, or even clearly state the basic ethical questions brought up by genetic engineering, cloning and the human genome project. Learning to think about meta-biological questions is intellectually stimulating and valuable in broadening the biological perspective of any life-scientist. Quite often the views of biology teachers and life-scientists on bioethical problems are considered weightier than those of others; for this reason, as well, biologists ought to educate themselves in philosophical and social issues that are rooted in their field, so that they may appropriately present them to the layperson.

The program in Biological Thought is a combination of three fields: Theoretical biology, philosophy of biology and bioethics. The program investigates the structure and nature of biological knowledge and examines modes of biological research and their impact on society. In dealing with these topics, it employs both philosophical contemplation external to biology and theoretical concepts embedded in the life sciences.

External philosophical reflection enables us to analyze and clarify major classical issues of philosophy of science pertaining to biology, such as: The organization of biological knowledge; the definition of research methodologies; the nature of biological laws and explanations; the demarcation of the life-sciences and the status of biology as an autonomous branch of knowledge (or alternatively - the reducibility of biology to other fundamental sciences); the role of biological theories in directing research; the evolution or emergence of new theories replacing older ones.

In our view, just as physics and chemistry do not fully account for biology, philosophy of science does not fully encompass philosophy of biology. In order to understand the essence of biological thought, biology must be examined in the light of paradigmatic concepts and dichotomies (e.g., teleology, natural selection, mechanistic versus vitalistic or organicistic conceptions). Through such unique ideas biological knowledge manifests its character as distinguished from other branches of science. Thomas Kuhn described the general structure of both "normal science" and scientific revolutions in physics following a detailed analysis of the Copernican revolution (the title of his earlier book that preceded Structure). We believe that in order to unravel the nature of biology and at the same time develop a consciousness of its premises and presuppositions, a detailed investigation of major theoretical frameworks, internal to biology, is just as essential.

The following Venn diagrams may illustrate the spirit of the Biological Thought program. We think that it is wrong to consider philosophy of biology as a mere subset of philosophy of science (a field that overwhelmingly bears upon physics): Figure 1 is out of line.

Figure 1

Nor is it correct to look upon the theoretical frameworks of biology as totally embodied in biology, as illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2

A far better sketch of philosophy of biology and its associations with both biology and philosophy is outlined in Figure 3:

  Biology and philosophy do not coincide;

  The theoretical frameworks of biology intersect both biology and philosophy;

  Philosophy of biology overlaps parts of philosophy of science, and is partially coincident with other branches of philosophy (ethics, key concepts in epistemology, etc.) and with theoretical frameworks of biology.

Figure 3

The contours of Figure 3 represent the approach employed in our program.

Aims of the Program

Biology has many implications for the world, human action, moral judgments and other disciplines (medicine, psychology, cybernetics, to name just three). The discussion of these implications is, to our mind, an important part of philosophy of biology. It will therefore be included in the program as well. In practice, the philosophical reflection on biology from the outside and the inspection of intrinsic theoretical aspects of biology will be carried out by studying several topics, which together, illuminate the most fundamental aspects of biological thought. The state of the art in biology changes so rapidly that the corpus of knowledge attained by a student is but a fragment of the biological information a biologist can transmit as a teacher to his or her own students. The transformations in biological knowledge and the conditions for assimilating new ideas into the life sciences are captivating topics, which will be addressed in this program in their cultural and historical contexts. The mind-body problem, for instance, is probably as old as western thought, but the particular shape it takes changes from era to era; the scientific concepts adopted in the attempt to deal with the problem reflect altering metaphors and shifting images of knowledge, or even the emergence of new disciplines. Historiographical aspects of the growth of biology will also be touched upon, since the description of changes in biology depends on the beholder and his or her assumptions. (Thus, for example, the historical contribution of animal experiments to the advancement of medicine is viewed quite differently by sociologists, animal-rights activists, scientists, and other interest groups.)

Meta-biological questions are, of course, entrenched in world-views and ideologies. One focus of the program is the attempt to pinpoint the influences of different convictions on the studied topics. Thus, religious outlooks may spring up in discussing reproductive choices, a Marxist view may prevail upon a debate on nature versus nurture, liberalism may affect one's position concerning drug use, and postmodernism casts its shadows on nearly everything. Furthermore, some themes studied in the courses are schools or beliefs as such (e.g., alternative medicine and deep ecology), while other topics involve moral judgments (e.g., abortion, animal experimentation and euthanasia). The students in this program - whether or not of distinct and explicit persuasions -will be required to take a stand on every issue discussed, justify it, point at the sources of their value-judgments and present arguments for alternative opinions. They will also be instructed to clearly define problems, identifying their ontological, epistemological and methodological dimensions, to analyze questions logically and conceptually, to derive valid conclusions from the analysis and to integrate different types of information and knowledge.

Structure of the Program

Components of the Program
Graduate studies span 4 semesters and include 10 seminars and 3 seminar papers. In order to complete their requirements, students are expected to submit a final paper of limited scope or a full thesis.

Students must accumulate a total of 45 credits: 10 seminars (3 credits each), and seminar papers in 3 topics (5 credits each). Credits will not be granted for qualifying courses. The thesis will account for 50% of the final degree grade (for students with a research orientation). The final paper will account for 20% of the final degree grade (for non-thesis students).

Seminar courses
The program includes the following seminar courses:

  Definition of Life (22000)

  Reduction in Biology (22001)

  The Role of Teleology in Biology (22002)

  Vitalism, Mechanism and Organicism: Fundamental Concepts in the Study of Life (22003)

  The Mind-Body Problem (22004)

  Evolution and Creationism (22005)

  The Human Genome Projects: Genetics and Genethics (22006)

  Bioethical Issues: Animal Experimentation (22007)

  Ecological Balance and Environmental Conservation (22008)

  A Critique of Alternative Medicine (22009)

Each course is divided into two sections. Section A of courses 22000-22004 is studied in the first semester and Section A of courses 22005-22009 in the second semester. Section B of courses 22000-22004 is studied in the third semester, and Section B of courses 22005-22009 in the fourth semester.

Structure of Seminar Courses
Section A:

     Introductory readings and supplementary readings in preparation for watching a video-cassette

     A video-cassette of an opening lecture delivered by an outstanding scholar in the field

     Reading of books and articles, and submission of a written assignment

     Active participation in one seminar meeting which will include a round of questions on the readings and a guided discussion

Section B:

     Reading of books and articles

     Active participation in two seminar meetings which will include lectures by students or experts that present specific aspects of the topics, a round of questions on the readings and a guided discussion

     Submission of a final written assignment

The five courses in each semester are studied consecutively, not concurrently, thus one course is studied per month.

Seminar Papers
At the end of the first semester, following Section A of the first five courses, students will select a topic for their first seminar paper, from among a list of topics related to these courses. At the end of the second semester, students will select topics for two additional seminar papers, topics which can be freely chosen, based on any of the courses of the program. Students will devote a significant part of their studies to writing their seminar papers, which will reflect their area of specialization. Students will prepare a lecture to be delivered to their peers on at least one of the topics studied. Each student will be assigned a tutor who will advise them on their seminar papers.

Structure of the seminar paper

     Abstract in Hebrew and English (one-half to one page)

     Table of contents (one page)

     Foreword, relating the topic of the paper to the relevant course (1-2 pages)

     Introduction: Presentation of the topic or problem that is the focus of the paper (one page)

     Body of the paper, divided into predetermined sections (about 10 pages)

     Summary or conclusions (1-2 pages)

     Bibliography

Scope of the seminar paper

     Between 15 and 20 double-spaced pages

     Based on 2-5 review papers (or one or two books) and an additional 5-10 articles

Specific instructions and advice on preparing the seminar paper are on the program website.

Thesis or Final Paper
Outstanding students will be entitled to write a thesis (outstanding students are those with an average of 90 and above in courses and seminar papers). The student will select the thesis topic and will be assigned a supervisor (internal or external). The thesis will be research-oriented, demonstrate originality in synthesis and integration, and is expected to include a bona fide innovation. Two professionals will read the thesis and judge its merit. The thesis grade will account for 50% of the final degree grade.

Other students will write a shorter final paper on one of the three topics they chose to specialize in. In writing the final paper, students will be guided by a tutor. The paper will include a summary of the relevant material raised at tutorials and an extended presentation of a topic or problem. The scope of the paper is about 40 pages and the grade on the paper will account for 20% of the final degree grade.

Degree Requirements
Students will be awarded a Master's degree in Biological Thought under the following conditions:

1.  Completion of the 10 seminars described above (3 credits each) with a grade of 60 at least.

Grades in each course will be determined by the weighted average of the written assignments of Sections A and B (40% each) and attendance and active participation in the tutorial sessions (20%).

2.   Writing three seminar papers and presenting at least one of them to the students in the group (5 credits each), with a grade of at least 60.

3.   Writing a final paper or a thesis and receiving a grade of at least 60.

The degree grade will be a weighted average of the components of the course, such that:

If the student submits a final paper, the grade will be calculated as follows:

    10 seminars and 3 seminar papers: 80% (of which 2/3 are grades in courses and 1/3 grades in seminar papers)

    Final paper: 20%

If the student submits a thesis, the grade will be calculated as follows:

    10 seminars and 3 seminar papers: 50% (of which 2/3 are grades in courses and 1/3 grades in seminar papers)

    Thesis: 50%

Application and Admission
Application Procedures
The program will be opened for the third time in September 2004. Students are accepted before that date to enable them to take qualifying courses during the previous academic year. Those interested in the program may contact Professor Simona Ginsburg or Dr. Sara Shwartz, telephone 972-2-6773330; or Dr. Susie Fisher, telephone 972-3-6465715. After submitting an application form, applicants will be interviewed.

Admission Requirements

1. A B.Sc. or B.A. in life sciences (including medical sciences) or a B.A. in philosophy.

2. Ability to read texts in English with no difficulty.

3. Qualifying courses in philosophy or biology.

Registration
Students admitted to the program will be notified and will receive registration instructions. Registration and registration cancellation procedures are identical to the procedures pertaining to undergraduate studies at the Open University, and will be carried out in accordance with the registration guidelines specified here (in Hebrew).

Registration for seminar papers, final paper and thesis will be announced at a later date.

Qualifying Studies
Interested applicants are invited to begin qualifying studies as described below:

Applicants with a B.A. in Life Sciences (Biology or Medicine) are required to take

1. Philosophy of Science (20202)

2. Problems in Moral Philosophy (10122)

3. Evolution (20397) - this course is not required of students who took a course in evolution as part of their undergraduate studies

In addition, it is beneficial to enroll in another course in Philosophy. The recommended Open University courses are Greek Philosophy (10248) and Rationalism and Empiricism (10266).

Applicants with degrees in Pharmacy, Nutrition, or Agriculture as well as combined degrees in Natural Sciences, Environmental Science or Paramedical fields, who have taken Biology courses in the framework of their degree studies, are required to take the following four courses:

1. Philosophy of Science (20202)

2. Problems in Moral Philosophy (10122)

3. Genetics (20275)

4. Evolution (20397)

Applicants with degrees in Physics, Chemistry, or Mathematics and Computer Science are required to take the following six courses:

1. Philosophy of Science (20202)

2. Problems in Moral Philosophy (10122)

3. Introduction to Life Sciences I (20118)

4. Introduction to Life Sciences II (20119)

5. Genetics (20275)

6. Evolution (20397)

Applicants with a B.A. in Philosophy are required to take

1. Introduction to Life Sciences I (20118)

2. Introduction to Life Sciences II (20119)

3. Philosophy of Science (20202) - this course is not required of students who took a course in philosophy of science as part of their undergraduate studies

Recommended:

1. Genetics (20275)

2. Evolution (20397)

Seminar papers on certain topics may require additional qualifying courses during the program, after the students have selected their three areas of specialization.

Accreditation of Prior Studies
Students who took courses relevant to the program in Biological Thought as part of their undergraduate studies at another institution of higher education may submit a request for exemption from qualifying or graduate level courses. Students must submit documents certifying to prior studies (including transcripts) to the Admissions Committee during the personal interview. The Admissions Committee will inform the students whether their request has been approved.

Transition from Probationary to Degree Candidate Status
Students may be admitted to the program with probationary status. The transition from this status to degree candidate status is subject to grades in the qualifying courses, and approval of the Admissions Committee.

Tuition
Tuition at the Open University is paid for each course separately. Tuition information can be found here (in Hebrew).